Challenges to Diplomatic Efforts in Resolving Nepal-India Border Problems in the Himalayas: A Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA)

Gaurav Bhattarai

doi:10.3126/nppr.v1i1.43418

Authors

Gaurav Bhattarai Department of International Relations and Diplomacy (DIRD), Tribhuvan University, University Campus, Kirtipur, Kathmandu,Nepal

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3126/nppr.v1i1.43418

Keywords:

Nepal, India, border problems, New map, Mansarovar Route

Abstract

The Constitutional Provision on Nepal’s Foreign Policy has emphasized securing Nepal’s international borders. Nepal’s Foreign Policy-2077 also demands Nepal’s border to be kept intact by protecting international border points and resolving boundary issues via the means of peaceful diplomatic negotiations and dialogues, based on historic documents, treaties, agreements, facts and evidence. Despite the constitutional provision and foreign policy directives, Nepal’s border problems with its Southern neighbour remain unresolved. Despite having friendly bilateral relations, and cross-border civilizational linkages, Nepal-India relations are not free from border problems. Even during the pandemic, when both countries closed their borders to contain the spread of the coronavirus, they resorted to border confrontations taking the bilateral relations into the low ebb. This study examines the border problems between Nepal and India during the time of COVID-19 with a focus on Lipulekh and Limpiyadhura. Largely concentrated on identifying assorted challenges in resolving Nepal-India border problems, when Nepal faced India with its new map against the latter's new route to Mansarovar, Nepal’s self-help that is limited to diplomatic talks with India has been elaborated along with Indian and Chinese responses to Nepal’s new map and India’s opening of a new route to Mansarovar, respectively. By using Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) as a tool, this article discusses why diplomatic negotiations haven’t found a headway in the Nepal-India context, despite Nepal's repeated calls. It is a qualitative study that uses data from both primary and secondary sources that include government reports, historical documents, archives, statistics, and treaties. Media sources have also been reviewed to understand various issues of Nepal’s border problems with India. After the coding and familiarisation of the data, analysis and interpretation were done. Highlighting the interconnectedness of the Himalayan geopolitics and India’s securitization of the Himalayan frontier, the article concludes that Nepal’s diplomatic initiative on resolving the border problem has been impacted by power condensation in the Himalaya region and India’s lack of interest.

Author Biography

Gaurav Bhattarai, Department of International Relations and Diplomacy (DIRD), Tribhuvan University, University Campus, Kirtipur, Kathmandu,Nepal

Gaurav Bhattarai is an Assistant Professor at the Department of International Relations and Diplomacy (DIRD), Tribhuvan University. He also teaches Strategic Studies to the officer cadets at Nepali Military Academy. His areas of interest are national security, South Asian Studies, Small States and Nepal-India-China. His articles on the same areas are published in prominent international journals.

References

Allison, G. T. (1969). Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis. The American Political Science Review, 63(3), 689-718. doi: 10.2307/1954423

Baral, A. (2019). Eminently beneficial for India and Nepal. Nepali Times, https://www. nepalitimes.com/here-now/eminently-beneficial-for-india-and-nepal/

Baral, B. (2020). India Should Realise China Has Nothing to Do With Nepal’s Stand on Lipulekh. The Wire, https://thewire.in/south-asia/nepal-india-lipulekh-china

Baral, T.N. (2018). Border Disputes and Its Impact on Bilateral Relation: A Case of Nepal-India International Border Management. Journal of APF Command and Staff College,1(1),28-36. doi: 10.3126/japfcsc.v1i1.26710

Bashyal, K., and Bhattarai, G. (2020). Correlating Small States with the Provision of International Law. Nepali Journal of Social Research, 2(1).

Basnet, M.B. (2020).Even as Kathmandu protests Indian encroachment, Darchula depends on India. The Kathmandu Post, https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/20/evenas-kathmandu-protests-indian-encroachment-darchula-depends-on-india

Bhattacherjee, K. (2020). Nepal PM Oli seeks ‘meaningful bilateral ties’. The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nepal-pm-oli-calls-up-modi-on-independenceday/article32362237.ece

Bhattarai, G. (2016). Prosperity Bridge. The Kathmandu Post, https://kathmandupost.com/opinion/2016/06/14/prosperity-bridge

Bhattarai, G. (2017). Comparing Neighborhood Foreign Policy of India and China in Relationto Security of Small States in South Asia. Seminar Paper presented at a Conference in JNU

Bhattarai, G. (2020a). The Nepali public can’t plumb China’s motives. Record Nepal, https://www.recordnepal.com/perspective/opinions/the-nepali-public-cant-plumb-chinasmotives/

Bhattarai, G. (2020b). What does the Sino-Indian Dispute Mean for Nepal? https://www.e-ir.info/2020/08/02/opinion-what-does-the-sino-indian-dispute-mean-for-nepal/

Bhusal, J.K. (2020). Evolution of cartographic aggression by India: A study of Limpiadhura to Lipulek. The Geographical Journal of Nepal, 13, 47-68. doi: 10.3126/gjn.v13i0.28151

Caporaso, J.A., Hermann, C.F., and Kegley, C.W. (1987). The Comparative Study of Foreign Policy Perspectives on the Future. International Studies Notes, 32-46

Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility (CESLAM). (2020). Trapped at the border. https://www.ceslam.org/news/trapped_at_the_border

Curtis, L. (2020). Lisa Curtis’s remarks at Brookings Institution Webinar on July 29, 2020. Dahal, D.R. (1978). Indian Ethnic Group in the Nepal Tarai, Kathmandu:CNAS

Dhungel, D., Bhusal, J., & Khanal, N. (2020). North-Western Boundary of Nepal. Journal of International Affairs, 3, 1-41, doi: 10.3126/joia.v3i1.29077

Ethirajan, A. (2020). India and China: How Nepal’s new map is stirring old rivalries. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-52967452

Gahatraj, R., and Sharma, N. (2020). Temporary quarantine facility built on no man’s land to keep more than a hundred Nepalis caught at Indo-Nepal border in Nepalgunj. The Kathmandu Post, https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/04/02/temporaryquarantine- facility-built-on-no-man-s-land-to-keep-more-than-a-hundred-nepaliscaught-in-indo-nepal-border-in-nepalgunj

Gaige, F. (1975). Regionalism and National Unity in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press

Gellner, D.N. (2013). Introduction. Borderland Lives in Northern South Asia. Duke University Press

Giri, A. (2016). Nepal PM proposes trilateral partnership with China and India. Hindustan Times.

Giri, A. (2020a). After Two High Level Engagements, Nepal and India look for a boundary meeting. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/08/20/after-two-high-levelengagements-nepal-and-india-look-for-a-boundary-meeting

Giri, A. (2020b). Boundary issues with India require a lasting solution that addresses all disputes, say analysts. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/11/boundary-issues-ith-india-require-a-lasting-solution-thataddresses-all-disputes-say-analysts

Giri, A.(2020c). Ruling party’s virtual meeting with the Chinese Communist Party draws widespread criticism for being ill-timed. The Kathmandu Post.

Gyanwali, P. (2020). Foreign Minister Pradeep Gyawali’s statements before the Parliamentary International Relations Committee on May 12, 2020.

Haidar, S. (2020). Supporter turned antagonist: The problem posed by Nepal Prime Minister K.P. Sharma Oli. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/supporter-turned-antagonist-the-problem-posed-by-oli/article31715944.ece

Halperin, M.H., Clapp, P.A., and Kanter, A.(2006). Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy. Washington D.C: Brookings Institution Press

Hausner, S.L., and Sharma, J. L. (2013). On the Way to India, Nepali Rituals of Border Crossing. In David Gellner (eds.) Borderland lives in Northern South Asia. Duke University Press, p. 97

Hermann, C.F., and M.G. Hermann. (1982). A Look inside the ‘Black Box’: Building Upon a Decade of Research. In G.W. Hopple, ed., Biopolitics, Political Psychology and International Relations. London: Pinter, pp. 1-36.

Hermann, C.F., Stein, J.G., Sundelius, B., and Walker, S. (2001). Resolve, Accept, or Avoid: Effect of Group Conflict on Foreign Policy Decisions. In M. Hermann ed. Leaders Groups and Coalitions: Understanding the People and Processes in Foreign Policymaking, Special Issue of International Studies Review, 3: 133-168.

Indianexpress. (2020). Nepal PM Oli dials Modi for first time since Kalapani border row, greets India on 74th I-Day. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/nepal-pm-kpoli-calls-pm-modi-to-extend-greetings-on-independence-day-6556070/

Indo-Nepal News. (2020). Kalapani is a Part of Nepal: Anand Swaroop Verma, May 23, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vgJP5EheY5o (accessed on July 7,2020).

K.C., K., and Bhattarai, G. (2020). Revisiting Foreign Policy: Nepal’s Foreign Policy after COVID-19. Institute of Foreign Affairs,

Kaarbo, J. (2015). A Foreign Policy Analysis Perspective on the Domestic Politics Turn in IR Theory. International Studies Review, 17(2), 189–216. doi: 10.1111/misr.12213

Kansakar, V. (2001). Nepal-India Open Border: Prospects, Problem and Challenges. Key paper presented in the Workshop organized by and published by the Institute of Foreign Affairs,

Kirkpatrick, S. A., Davis, D. F. , and Robertson, R. D. (1976). The Process of Political Decision-Making in Groups: Search Behavior and Choice Shifts. American Behavioral Scientist, 20:33-64

Lahiri, S. (2017). With Mud-Slinging, Chest-Thumping, Media From India, China Mirror Border Impasse, The Wire. https://thewire.in/culture/india-china-media-doklam-standoff

Lijian, Z. (2020). Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian’s Regular Press Conference on May 19, 2020. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/2511_665403/t1780716.shtml

Malla, K. (2020). Pursue diplomacy or go to court. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/12/16/pursue-diplomacy-or-go-to-court

Martin, P. (2015). Beyond 1962, How to Upgrade the Sino-Indian Relationship. Foreign Affairs,

Martniez, O.J. (1994). Border people. Life and society in the U.S. – Mexico borderlands. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Mehta, A. (2020). As said by General Ashok Mehta to Nepali Journalist Rishi Dhamala in Prime Television on August 15, 2020

Menon, S. The Wire. June 18, 2020. https://thewire.in/external-affairs/shivshankar-menoninterview-china

Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, MEA. (2020). Official Spokesperson’s response to media queries on inauguration of road on 8th May in Pithoragarh district, Uttarakhand. https://mea.gov.in/response-to-queries.htm?dtl/32677/Official_Spokespersons_response_to_media_queries_on_inauguration_of_road_on_8th_May_in_Pithoragarh_district_Uttarakhand

MoFA. (2020a). Press Release. MoFA. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. https://mofa.gov.np/press-release-regarding-lipu-lekh/

MoFA (2020b). Press Release on Telephone Conversation between the Prime Ministers of Nepal and India. https://mofa.gov.np/press-release-on-telephone-conversationbetween-the-prime-ministers-of-nepal-and-india-2/

Mulmi, A. R. (2020). The art of being heard. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2020/05/14/the-art-of-being-heard

Muni, S.D. (2020). As stated by S.D. Muni to Nepali Journalist Rishi Dhamala in Prime TV on August 15, 2020

Nayak, N. (2020). Is there a China Connection? The Kathmandu Post.

Nehru, J. (1961). “6 December 1950, speech in Parliament”. India’s Foreign Policy: Selected Speeches, September 1946–April 1961. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, p. 436.

Neupane S.R & Giri, A. (2021). Delhi discusses all but boundary row in talks with Foreign Minister Gyawali. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2021/01/16/delhi-discusses-all-but-boundary-row-in-talks-with-foreign-ministergyawali

Panda, A. (2020). Road Inauguration Sparks India, Nepal Border Row. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/road-inauguration-sparks-india-nepal-border-row/

Paudel, R. (2020). Nepal’s Armed Police Force Begins Patrolling at Disputed Border Point With India. The Wire. https://thewire.in/south-asia/nepals-armed-police-force-begins-patrolling-at-disputed-border-point-with-india

Per, D. (2020). Rajnath Singh inaugurates new road to Kailash Mansarovar. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rajnath-singh-inaugurates-new-road-to-kailashmansarovar/article31533372.ece

Pradhan, SB. (2020). Kalapani Border Issue: Nepal SC Asks Govt For Country’s HistoricalMap. The Wire. https://thewire.in/external-affairs/nepal-supreme-court-kalapaniborder

Pradhan, T R & Giri, A. (2020). “Cabinet endorses new political map that includes all territoriesthat Nepal claims”, The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/18/cabinet-endorses-new-political-map-that-includes-allterritories-that-nepal-claims

Press Information Bureau. (2019). Maps of newly formed Union Territories of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, with the map of India. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India

Press Information Bureau. (2020). Raksha Mantri Shri Rajnath Singh inaugurates 80 km long road curtailing Kailash-Mansarovar pilgrimage time. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1622091

PTI. (2014). Modi concludes historic visit to Nepal. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.

indiatimes.com/india/modi-concludes-historic-visit-to-nepal/articleshow/39628843.cms

Republica. (2018). Modi’s delay in receiving EPG report raises doubt over Indian commitment. https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/modi-s-delay-in-receiving-epgreport-raises-doubt-over-indian-commitment/

Republica. (2020). 6000 APF deployed along Nepal-India border amid fear of coronavirus. https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/6000-apf-deployed-along-nepalindia-border-amid-fear-of-coronavirus/

Risal, B. (2020). As stated during a talk program organized by the Department of International Relations and Diplomacy.

Robertson, R.D. (1980). Small Group Decision Making: The Uncertain Role of Informationin Reducing Uncertainty. Political Behavior, 1980, 2(2), 163-188. doi: 10.1007/BF00989889

Rosenau, J. N. (1966). Pre-Theories and Theories of Foreign Policy, in R. Barry Farrell (ed.), Approaches to Comparative and International Politics. Northwestern University Press

Sangroula, Y. (2020). As stated by former Attorney General of Nepal Yubaraj Sangroula, during a webinar on Kalapani Lipulekh and Limpiyadhura Issue, organized by DIRDTU on May 11, 2020

Sempa, F. P. (2002). From the Cold War to the 21st Century. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers,

Shara, B. (2020). Residents of Nabhi, Gunji and Kuti used to pay land revenue to Nepal until 2035 BS. Republica.

Shrestha, B. (2021). Diplomacy in the Perspective of Boundaries. Journal of Foreign Affairs, 1(1), 37-57. doi:10.3126/jofa.v1i1.36248

Shrestha, B.N. (2020). The Nepal–India Border and Borderland Communities Under COVID-19. Borders in Globalization Review. 2(1), 90-93. doi:10.18357/bigr21202019963

Shukla, D. (2006). India-Nepal Relations: Problems and Prospects. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 67(2),355- 374.

Simkhada, S. R. (2020). As said by ambassador Shambhu Ram Simkhada to Kantipur television on August 15, 2020

Singh, M. (2021). Gen Naravane’s insensitive remark undermined 40 battalions of Nepalis in Indian Army. The Print. https://theprint.in/opinion/gen-naravanes-insensitive-remark-undermined-40-battalions-of-nepalis-in-indian-army/428218/

Smith, S., Hadfield, A. and Dunne T. (2012). Foreign Policy Theories Actors Cases. Oxford University Press

Snyder R.C., Bruck H.W., Sapin B. (2002) Decision-Making as an Approach to the Study of International Politics. In Foreign Policy Decision-Making (Revisited). Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

doi:10.1057/9780230107526_2

Sprout, H. and Sprout, M. (1956). Man-Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International Politics. Princeton: Center of International Studies

Subramanian, N. (2020). Explained: The new Indian road to Lipu Lekh, Nepal’s protests, and the strategic importance of the area, The Indian Express, 17 June 2020, https://

indianexpress.com/article/explained/ the-new-indian-road-to-lipu-lekh-nepals-protests-and-the-strategic-importance-of-the-area-6413914/. Accessed on 17 June 2020.

Thapa, R. (2020). As said by Rajendra Thapa, a former Nepal Army brigadier general to The Kathmandu Post on May 20, 2020

Thapar, K. (2020). Chinese Behaviour Has Been Very Different From Anything In the Past: Former NSA

The Himalayan Times. (2020a). Internationalise Lipulekh dispute if need be: House panel. https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/internationalise-lipulekh-dispute-if-need-behouse-panel/

The Himalayan Times. (2020b). After Lipulekh, Chinese media’s May 2 tweet on Chomolungma trends on social media. https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/chinese-media-claimsmt-everest-is-in-china/

The Hindustan Times. (2018). Modi, Nepal PM Oli build trust and rapport, eye greater connectivity and trade. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-exchanges-views-on-strengthening-ties-with-prachanda-other-leaders-in-nepal/story-DPVrumxTdENfi76nyuLLBP.html

The Indian Express. (2020). India rejects Nepal’s new map: Artificial enlargement of territorial claims unacceptable.https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-nepal-kalapanimap-border-k-p-oli-6419788/

The Kathmandu Post. (2015). Over-reliance on India has hit economy hard. https://kathmandupost.com/money/2015/11/22/over-reliance-on-india-has-hit-economyhard

The Kathmandu Post. (2020a). Boundary issue should not impact other dynamics of Nepal-India ties, Gyawali says. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/06/29/boundary-issue-should-not-impact-other-dynamics-of-nepal-india-ties-gyawali-says

The Kathmandu Post. (2020b). Boundary issues with India require a lasting solution that addresses all disputes, say analysts. https://kathmandupost.com/

national/2020/05/11/boundary-issues-with-india-require-a-lasting-solution-thataddresses-all-disputes-say-analysts

The Kathmandu Post. (2020c). Nepal hands over diplomatic note to Indian ambassador expressing displeasure over India’s opening of a road via Lipulekh. https://

kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/11/nepal-hands-over-diplomatic-note-toindian-ambassador-expressing-displeasure-over-india-s-opening-of-a-road-vialipulekh

The Kathmandu Post. (2020d). Indian Army chief says Nepal objected to India’s opening of a road link via Lipulekh ‘at the behest of someone else’. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/15/indian-army-chief-says-nepal-objected-to-india-sopening-of-a-road-link-via-lipulekh-at-the-behest-of-someone-else

The Kathmandu Post. (2020e). Government unveils new political map including Kalapani, Lipulekh and Limpiyadhura inside Nepal borders. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/20/government-unveils-new-political-map-including-kalapanilipulekh-and-limpiyadhura-inside-nepal-borders

The Kathmandu Post. (2020f). Kalapani Issue is between Nepal and India says Chinese Foreign Ministry. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/19/kalapani-issue-isbetween-nepal-and-india-says-chinese-foreign-ministry

The Kathmandu Post. (2020g). Nepal cannot wait for the Covid-19 crisis to be over to hold talks with India on boundary issues, Gyawali says. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/11/nepal-cannot-wait-for-the-covid-19-crisis-to-be-over-to-holdtalks-with-india-on-boundary-issues-gyawali-says

The Kathmandu Post. (2020h). As India, China talk to resolve border stand-off, analysts question when Delhi will speak to Nepal. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/06/08/as-india-china-talk-to-resolve-border-stand-off-analystsquestion-when-delhi-will-speak-to-nepal

The Kathmandu Post. (2021). Government plans to hold census in Kalapani but doesn’t know how. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2021/04/07/government-plansto-hold-census-in-kalapani-but-doesn-t-know-how

The Kathmandu Post.(2018). Nepali, Indian experts propose ‘smart border’ to limit crossings. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2018/08/13/nepali-indian-experts-proposesmart-border-to-limit-crossings

The Times of India. (2020). China has no role in India-Nepal border issue: Senior Nepal Leader. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/china-has-no-role-inindia-nepal-border-issue-senior-nepal-leader/articleshow/76790655.cms

The Wire. (2020). Army Chief Says Nepal Objected to India’s Link Road to Lipulekh at Someone Else’s Behest.

The Wire. (2021). Border Issue with Nepal Is Not Part of Joint Commission Meeting: India.External Affairs. https://thewire.in/external-affairs/border-issue-nepal-not-part-ofjoint-commission-meeting-india

Tribune News Service. (2020). Nepal objects to shorter road route to Mansarovar; MEA saysterritory lies in India. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/nepal-objects-to-indias-shorter-road-route-to-mansarovar-82607

Vertzberger, Y. (1990) The World in Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition, and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision making, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Wilkinson, F. (2021). Mount Everest is more than two feet taller, China and Nepal announce. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/newheight-of-mount-everest-announced-by-china-and-nepal

Xavier, C. (2020). Interpreting the India-Nepal border dispute. The Brookings Institution. https:// www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/06/11/interpreting-the-india-nepalborder-dispute/