Assessing Affirmative Action Practices in Nepal’s Federal Civil Service: Current Achievements and Future Reform Needs

Authors

  • Baburam Bhul PhD Scholar, Faculty of Management and Law, Nepal Open University, Nepal; Office of the Auditor General, Nepal

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.59552/nppr.v4i1.86

Keywords:

social justice, social inclusion, meritocracy versus inclusivity, diversity, civil service

Abstract

Nepal has implemented an affirmative action policy in the federal civil service since 2007 to address historical injustices and inequalities and promote the representation of marginalized people, such as women, ethnic minorities, and underprivileged castes, in public sector employment. This move has contributed to empowering disadvantaged people, mainstreaming minorities, and promoting social justice by strengthening inclusion within the bureaucratic structure. A qualitative research methodology is applied to perform a scoping review of 87 scholarly articles and a media review of 45 news articles to reveal the reasons behind the reforms made by policy enterprises in Nepal. The findings scrutinize both the constructive and critical facets of affirmative action practices in Nepal’s public service from 2007 to 2024. Besides some positive results leading to cultural competencies, such as the increased representation of women, Dalits, and ethnic minorities, there are still substantial inequalities in equal opportunities for empowerment and active participation in decision-making processes. The main reasons for such negative situations are complex social, ideological, and legal barriers, narrow-minded and deeply established prejudices, the lack of sufficient financial and human resources to undertake the programs, patriarchal organizational culture, and ultimately inadequate political commitment. The paper recommends continued reforms, timely review, preventing elite capture, adaptation to changing needs, a focus on the inadequate representation of marginalized groups, and the promotion of affirmative action policies that will result in the ending of these hurdles and, eventually, a more representative and all-inclusive Nepalese civil service.

Author Biography

Baburam Bhul, PhD Scholar, Faculty of Management and Law, Nepal Open University, Nepal; Office of the Auditor General, Nepal

He is pursuing a Ph.D. in Development Management and Governance at the Faculty of Management and Law, Nepal Open University. He holds an M.Phil. and MPA in Public Administration from Tribhuvan University. He also has multiple degrees, such as an MA in Sociology, an MA in Political Science from Tribhuvan University, and an LLB from the Nepal Law Campus of Tribhuvan University. Currently, he is serving as a government auditor at the Office of the Auditor General Nepal. He has been working in government service since 2012. His areas of expertise include public policy analysis, HRM, development management, democracy, federalism, social inclusion, DEIB and IDEA, and Governance.

References

Anzia, S. F, & Berry, C. R. (2011). The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson effect: why do congresswomen outperform congressmen? American Journal of Political Science. 55(3), 478–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00512.x

Baral, S. (2024, January 24). Dalit women’s participation in politics: The impact of quotas and societal biases. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2024/01/28/dalit-women-empowered-or-imperilled

Bista, D. B. (1991). Fatalism and development: Nepal’s struggle for modernization. Orient Longman Publication.

Bhatta, P., Adhikari, L. Thada, M., & Rai, R. (2008) Structures of denial: Student representation in Nepal’s higher education. Studies in Nepali History and Society, 13(2), 235–263. https://www.martinchautari.org.np/storage/files/sinhas-vol13-no2-pramod-bhatta-lila-adhikari-manu-thada-ramesh-rai.pdf

Bhatta, S. & Bhatta K. (2024, August 17). Women in the state system. Naya Patrika. https://www.nayapatrikadaily.com/news-details/147641/2024-08-17

Bhul, B. (2021). Perceptional effects of reservation policy for the inclusive civil service of Nepal. International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 8(2), 380–390. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijssm.v8i2.34676

Bhul, B. (2023). The review of affirmative action for the inclusive civil service of Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Public Affairs, 1(1), 23–45. https://doi.org/10.3126/njpa.v1i1.63288

BK, M. B. (2023, April 12). Civil Service Act, Reservation and Underlying Psychology. Online Khabar. https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2023/04/1293633

Bishwakarma, D. (2024, September 7). The persistence of marginalization: Barriers to representation for women and Madhesi Dalits in civil service. Nepali Times. https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/reaffirming-affirmative-action

Bolick, C. (1996). The affirmative action fraud: can we restore the American civil rights vision? Cato Institute. https://www.cato.org/books/affirmative-action-fraud-can-we-restore-american-civil-rights-vision

Borooah, V. K. (2010). Social exclusion and jobs reservation in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 45(52), 31–35. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/28668

Bradbury, M., & Kellough, J. E. (2011). Representative bureaucracy: Assessing the evidence on active representation. The American Review of Public Administration, 41(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0275074010367823

Braun, C. M. (1995). Affirmative action and the glass ceiling Source, The Black Scholar, 25(3), 7-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.1995.11430734

Browne, E. (2013). Ethnic minority public sector employment. [GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 989]. Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, University of Birmingham. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089ffed915d3cfd000528/hdq989.pdf

Chalam, K. S. (1990). Caste reservations and equality of opportunity in education. Economic and Political Weekly, 25(41), 2333-2339.

Crosby, F. J., Iyer, A., & Sincharoen, S. (2006). Understanding affirmative action. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 585–611. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190029

Dee, T. S. (2005). A teacher like me: Does race, ethnicity, or gender matter? The American Economic Review, 95(2), 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282805774670446

Deshpande, A. (2013). Social justice through affirmative action in India: An Assessment. In J. Wicks-Lim & R. Pollin (Eds.), Capitalism on trial: Explorations in the tradition of Thomas E. Weisskopf (pp 266–85). Edward Elgar. https://ideas.repec.org/h/elg/eechap/14843_18.html

Dhakal, D. (2013, August 8). Analyzing reservation policies in Civil Service of Nepal [Course presentation]. Course on International Political Economy (Case Study) at GraSPP. University of Tokyo. https://www.pp.u-tokyo.ac.jp/graspp-old/courses/2013/documents/5140143_10b.pdf

Who cares?: Amnesty International issues scathing report on caste-based discrimination in Nepal. (2024, May 12). Nepali Times. https://nepalitimes.com/news/who-cares

Drucza, K. (2016). Talking about inclusion: attitudes and affirmative action in Nepal. Development Policy Review, 35(2), 161–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12205

Edigheji, O. (2007). Affirmative action and state capacity in a democratic South Africa. Centre for Policy Studies. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=b101d3994ff665648506a75cf26a2f217dde568a

European Institute of Gender Equality. (n. d.). Positive measures [Glossary and Thesaurus]. https://eige.europa.eu/taxonomy/term/1108

Ferreira, F., & Gyourko, J. (2014). Does gender matter for political leadership? The case of US mayors. Journal of Public Economics, 112, 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.01.006

Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens. (2024). Gender Equality in Nepal: Facts and Figures. Government of Nepal. https://mowcsc.gov.np/downloadfiles/Gender-Equality-Report-1715242038.pdf

Gautam, B. L., & Poudel, P. P. (2022). Diversity, multilingualism and democratic practices in Nepal. Bandung, 9(1–2), 80–102. https://doi.org/10.1163/21983534-09010004

Ghimire, R. (2020). Constitutional and Legal Framework for Social Inclusion in Nepal. In J. Kumar, & S. Maharjan (Eds.), Social inclusion in Nepal: Historical background, current status and future prospects (pp. 61-81). Springer.

Gibelman, M. (2000). Affirmative action at the crossroads: A social justice perspective. The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 27(1), 153-174. https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.2632

Government of Nepal (GoN), (2007). Civil Service Act, 2049 (1993), Second amendment 2007. Nepal Law Commission. https://lawcommission.gov.np/content/12254/12254-civil-service-act-2049/

Graham, H. D. (1992). The origins of affirmative action: Civil rights and the regulatory state. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 523, 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716292523001

Gu, J., McFerran, B., Aquion, K., & Kim T. G. (2004). What makes affirmative action-based hiring decisions seem (un)fair? A test of an ideological explanation for fairness judgments. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 722–745. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1927

Gurung, H. (2005, September 26-27). Affirmative action in Nepalese context [Conference presentation]. National dialogue in affirmative action and electoral system in Nepal, Kathmandu. Enabling State Programme.

Gurung, H. (2006). From exclusion to inclusion: Socio-political agenda for Nepal. Social Inclusion Research Fund. https://pahar.in/pahar/Books%20and%20Articles/Nepal/2006%20From%20Exclusion%20to%20Inclusion--Socio-political%20Agenda%20for%20Nepal%20by%20Gurung%20s.pdf

Gurung, O. (2009). Social Inclusion: Policies and Practices in Nepal. Occasional Papers, 11, 1-15 https://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/opsa/pdf/OPSA_11_01.pdf

Haider, H. (2011) Effects of political quotas for women [GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 757]. Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, University of Birmingham. https://gsdrc.org/publications/effects-of-political-quotas-for-women/

Holzer, H. J., & Neumark, D. (2006). Affirmative action: What do we know? The Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 26(2), 463-490. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20241

Government of India. (1980). Report of the backward classes commission (Mandal Commission Report). https://www.ncbc.nic.in/Writereaddata/Mandal%20Commission%20Report%20of%20the%201st%20Part%20English635228715105764974.pdf

Jamil, I., & Baniamin, H. M. (2020). Representative and responsive bureaucracy in Nepal: a mismatch or a realistic assumption? Public Administration and Policy: An Asia-Pacific Journal, 23(2), 141-156. https://doi.org/10.1108/PAP-03-2020-0016.

Jamil, I. (2019). The promise of representative bureaucracy and citizen’s trust in the Civil Service in Nepal. In I. Jamil, T. N. Dhakal, & N. R. Paudel (Eds.). Civil service management and administrative Systems in South Asia (pp. 121-147). Palgrave Macmillan. . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-90191-6_6

Jamil, I., & Dangal R. (2009). The state of bureaucratic representativeness and administrative culture in Nepal. Contemporary South Asia, 17(2), 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/09584930802346497

Jencks, C. (1998). Racial bias in testing. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-White test score gap (pp. 55-85). https://awspntest.apa.org/record/1998-06583-001

Jha, J. (2023, December 3). Enforcement gaps in Nepal’s constitutional provisions for marginalized groups. Annapurna Express. https://theannapurnaexpress.com/story/46783/

Johnson, T. (2015). Service after serving: Does Veterans’ Preference Diminish the Quality of the US Federal Service? Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory, 25(3). 669–696 https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muu033

Kasara, K. (2007). Tax me if you can: Ethnic geography, democracy, and the taxation of agriculture in Africa. American Political Science Review, 101(1), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070050

Kennedy, J. F. (1961). Executive Order 10925—Establishing the President’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/237176

Khanal, S., & Poudel, S. (2023, May 22). Caste vs. class: Rethinking affirmative action in Nepal. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/art-culture/2023/05/22/point-counter-point-should-affirmative-action-be-based-on-caste-not-class

Kingsley, D. (1944). Representative bureaucracy. Antioch Press.

Korten, D. C. (2011). Globalizing civil society: Reclaiming our right to power. Seven Stories Press. https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/289966

Kovacs, J. A., Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Bodner, T. (2014). Perceptions of affirmative action based on socioeconomic status: A comparison with traditional affirmative action. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 26, 35–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-013-9223-0.

Kramon, E., & Posner, D. N. (2016). Who benefits from distributive politics? How the outcome one studies affect the answer one gets. Perspectives on Politics, 11(2), 461–474. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592713001035

Kravitz, D. A., Harrison, D. A., Turner, M. E., Levine, E. L., Chaves, W., & Brannick, M. T. (1997). Affirmative action: A review of psychological and behavioral research. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/faculty/13/

Krislov, S. (2012). Representative bureaucracy. Quid Pro Books. https://www.ebay.com/p/143559251

Lawoti, M. (2005). Towards a democratic Nepal: Inclusive political institutions for a multicultural society. Sage. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/books/638/

Leonard, J. S. (1984). The impact of affirmative action on employment [Working paper No. 1310], National Bureau of Economic Research. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w1310/w1310.pdf

Leslie, L. M., Mayer, D. M., & Kravitz, D. A. (2014). The Stigma of affirmative action: A stereotyping-based theory and meta-analytic test of the consequences for performance. Academy of Management Journal, 57(4), 964–989. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.0940

Lewis, G. B. (1997). Race, sex, and performance ratings in the federal service. Public Administration Review, 57(6), 479–489. https://doi.org/10.2307/976959

Lott, J. R. (2007). Does a helping hand put others at risk? Affirmative action, police departments, and crime. Economic Inquiry, 38(2), 239–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2000.tb00016.x

Louis, P. (2005). Affirmative action in the private sectors: Need for a national debate. In S. Thorat, & A. P. Negi (Eds.), Reservation and private sector: Quest for equal opportunity and growth (pp. 140-156). Rawat. https://www.rawatbooks.com/sc-st/Reservation-and-private-sector-quest-for-equal-opportunity-and-growth-paperback

Marion, J. (2009). How costly is affirmative action? Government contracting and California’s proposition 209. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 91(3), 503–522. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.91.3.503

Meier, K. J. (2019). Theoretical frontiers in representative bureaucracy: New directions for research. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2 (1), 39-56. https://doi.org/10.1093/ppmgov/gvy004

Meier, K. J., & Capers, K. J. (2014). Representative bureaucracy: Four questions. In G. B. Peters & J. Pierre (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Public Administration (pp. 370–380). Sage. https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/hdbk_pubadmin/n28.xml

Meier, K. J., & Nigro, L. G. (1976). Representative bureaucracy and policy preferences: A study in the attitudes of federal executives. Public Administration Review, 36(4), 458–469. https://doi.org/10.2307/974854

Middleton, T. (2013). Scheduling tribes: A view from inside India’s ethnographic state. Focaal – Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology 65, 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2013.650102

Middleton, T., & Shneiderman, S. (2008). Reservations, federalism and the politics of recognition in Nepal, Economic and Political Weekly 43(19), 39–45. https://www.epw.in/journal/2008/19/perspectives/reservations-federalism-and-politics-recognition-nepal.html

Moodie, M. (2013). Upward mobility in a forgotten tribe: Notes on the “creamy layer” problem, Focaal – Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology, 2013 (65), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2013.650103

National Inclusion Commission (NIC) (2022). Effect of affirmative action in existing government services [Study Report, 2079]. https://ninc.gov.np/content/5245/5245-study-report-on-effect-of-rese/

National Statistics Office (NSO) (2021). National population and housing census report 2021. https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results

O’Neill, T. (2023). Youth, meritocracy and cultural hierarchy in the New Nepal. Contemporary South Asia, 31(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/09584935.2023.2169902

Onta, P., Maharjan, H., Humagani D. R., & Parajuli S. (Eds.). (2008). Sambeshi media. Martin Chautari. https://martinchautari.org.np/mc-publications/samabeshi-media

Panthee, R. (2024, February 6). Exploiting the reservation system: The need for periodic reviews. My Republica. https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/reform-in-reservation-is-necessary

Paudel, N. R. (2016). Inclusive governance: A case study of civil service in Nepal. Journal of Governance and Innovation, 2(1), 19-40.

Pardhan, M. S. (2014). Perspective on multiple dimensions and intersections in social inclusion. In O. Gurung, M. S. Tamang & M. Turin (Eds.), Perspective on social inclusion and exclusion in Nepal (pp. 38-56). Central Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tribhuvan University. https://works.hcommons.org/records/p1btw-4yg05

Pariyar, M. B., & Pariyar, T. (2023, May 23). Systematic barriers to Dalit political representation in Nepal. Ratopati. https://english.ratopati.com/story/27532

Premdas, R. (2016). Social justice and affirmative action. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(3), 449–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2016.1109681

Pojman, L. P. (1998). The case against affirmative action. International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 12(1), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.5840/ijap199812111

Public Service Commission (PSC). (2023). 64th annual report, 2080. Government of Nepal. https://psc.gov.np/category/annual-report.html

Pyakurel, U. P. (2011). A Debate on Dalits and affirmative action in Nepal. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(40), 71–78. https://www.epw.in/journal/2011/40/special-articles/debate-dalits-and-affirmative-action-nepal.html

Rai, P. R. (2022). Reservation for Janajati in Nepal’s civil service: Analysis from intersectional lens. American Journal of Arts and Human Science, 1(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajahs.v1i1.257

Rasul, I., & Rogger, D. (2015). The impact of ethnic diversity in bureaucracies: evidence from the Nigerian civil service. The American Economic Review, 105(5), 457–461. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151003

Regmi, U. R., & Sunar, R. (2024, June 9). Legal education as a tool for Dalit empowerment and advocacy. The Rising Nepal. https://risingnepaldaily.com/news/44191

Riccucci, N. M., Van Ryzin, G. G., & Lavena, C. F. (2014). Representative bureaucracy in policing: Does it increase perceived legitimacy? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 24(3), 537–551. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muu006

Rosen, B. (1974). Affirmative action produces equal employment opportunity for all, Public Administration Review, 34(3), 237-239. https://doi.org/10.2307/974910

Selden, S. C. (2006). A Solution in search of a problem? Discrimination, affirmative action, and the new public service. Public Administration Review, 66(6), 911–923. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00659.x

Shah, A.M. (1991). Job reservations and efficiency. Economic and Political Weekly, 26(29), 1732–1734. https://www.epw.in/journal/1991/29/commentary/job-reservations-and-efficiency.html

Sharma, B. (2024, July 29). Abuse of quotas. Nagarik News. https://nagariknews.nagariknetwork.com/social-affairs/1443542-1722211017.html

Shneiderman, S. (2013). Developing a culture of marginality: Nepal’s current classificatory moment. Focaal - Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology, 65, 42–55. https://doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2013.650105

Srinivas, G. (2015). Reservations, creamy layer and the Dalit middle class. Manpower Journal, 49(3/4), 61-75.

Sowell, T. (2004) Affirmative action around the world: An empirical study. Yale University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1npfgb

Subedi, M. (2014). Some theoretical considerations on caste, Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 7, 51–86. https://doi.org/10.3126/dsaj.v7i0.10437

Sunam, R. (2018). Samabeshitako Bahas [Debating Social Inclusion]. Kathmandu: Samata Foundation. https://samatafoundation.org/product/sambeshitako-bahas/

Sunam, R., & Shrestha, K. (2019). Failing the most excluded: a critical analysis of Nepal’s affirmative action policy. Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 46(2), 283–305. https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/entities/publication/d777c0d3-3180-461e-9320-9bd43f8f23b5/full

Sunam, R., Pariyar, B., & Shrestha, K. K. (2021, July 6). Does affirmative action undermine meritocracy? “Meritocratic inclusion” of the marginalized in Nepal’s bureaucracy. Development Policy Review, 40, e12554. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/dpr.12554

Thapa, D. (2017). Affirmative action and social inclusion in Nepal. International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 5(5), 259-267. https://www.granthaalayahpublication.org/journals/granthaalayah/issue/archive

Government of Nepal. (2015). The Constitution of Nepal. https://lawcommission.gov.np/category/1807

The Council of Europe. (2000). Final report of the Group of Specialists on positive action: Positive action in the field of equality between women and men [Report]. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016805916bb

Tsai, L. L. (2007). Solidary groups, informal accountability, and local public goods provision in rural China. American Political Science Review. 101(02), 355–372. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070153

Vishwakarma, J. B. (2024, May 17). Struggle and Conspiracy of Reservation. Kantipur. https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2024/05/17/struggle-and-conspiracy-of-reservation-25-34.html

World Bank. (2004). Implementing affirmative action in public services: Comparative administrative practice. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, World Bank. https://gsdrc.org/document-library/implementing-affirmative-action-in-public-services-comparative-administrative-practice/

Additional Files

Published

2025-01-05

How to Cite

Bhul, B. (2025). Assessing Affirmative Action Practices in Nepal’s Federal Civil Service: Current Achievements and Future Reform Needs. Nepal Public Policy Review, 4(1), 141–187. https://doi.org/10.59552/nppr.v4i1.86

Issue

Section

Regular Articles